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The Independence of East Timor
Multi-Dimensional Perspectives – Occupation, Resistance, and International Political Activism

In the series:
The Sussex Library of Asian Studies

Clinton Fernandes
Clinton Fernandes is Associate Professor at the University of New South Wales. Prior to becoming an academic, he spent 15 years in the Australian Army and served as the Australian Intelligence Corps– Principal Analyst (East Timor) in the final years of East Timor’s independence struggle. In 2008 and 2009 he assisted the Australian Federal Police’s War Crimes team on the subject of the Indonesian military and the East Timorese resistance. From 2007 to 2009 he served as the Consulting Historian for Balibo, a feature film about the murder of six Australian-based journalists in East Timor in 1975.

This book is a history of the struggle for independence after East Timor was invaded by Indonesia in 1975. The occupation, which lasted 24 years, was immediately resisted through guerrilla warfare and clandestine resistance. A continuum of effort between the armed freedom fighters in the mountains, the resilience of urban supporters, and international activism and support eventually brought about liberation in September 1999. Given that the Timor rebels did not have a land border with a friendly state, had no external supplier of weapons and no liberated area in which to recover between guerrilla operations, their successful resistance is unique in the history of guerrilla warfare and independence struggles. Equally uncommon was an unexpected weapon in the struggle – a remarkable display of strategic non-violent action.
… The Independence of East Timor is the first study to integrate all the major factors in East Timor’s independence struggle. The multi-dimensional perspectives addressed in this volume include Indonesian, US and Australian diplomacy; Indonesian military operations and activities against the populace; East Timorese resistance at all social levels; human rights abuses; the issue of oil; and international diplomacy resulting from global solidarity activism.

Preface 1. East Timor and Indonesia 2. Destabilisation and War 3. The Politics of Starvation 4. Regeneration in the 1980s 5. Santa Cruz and the Aftermath 6. Chaos and Order 7. The Juventude 8. The Tide Turns 9. Fracturing the Bi-partisan Consensus 10. Military Body Language Bibliography Index
“This excellent study of the long struggle for independence in East Timor was written by an author who seems to have had access to everyone, on all sides, who played any role. In a very tight format, Fernandes makes this history almost too inclusive. He populates the long story with nearly everyone who had a say or played a role, but he fails to single out individuals or explain why they were key to achieving eventual success or tried to block it. He includes friends and foes, leaders, and ordinary individuals who did or said anything that contributes to making his narrative as complete as possible, but most disappear as the subject passes without helping readers understand why they were important, or not, to Timor’s independence. Despite this, the book will have lasting value as a primary source for studies to come and be read and consulted by teachers, writers, and scholars looking for clues as to where to turn next as they seek to develop new descriptions and/or interpretations. Recommended.” Choice “This seminal book by Clinton Fernandes is a unique account of the history of East Timor’s struggle for independence from its Indonesian colonizer. The East Timorese case study is distinctive compared to other anti-colonial movements because its strategy for non-violent confrontation inspired the leaders to locate their campaign transnationally—appealing to international diplomacy as well as to international supporters (many of whom were ordinary citizens) for funding, allies and legitimization. This book is a clearly written, comprehensive and well-documented account of this exceptional history. Its multi-dimensional approach tells the fascinating story from a variety of perspectives: Indonesian, US and Australian diplomacy; Indonesian military operations and activities against the populace; East Timorese resistance at all social levels; human rights abuses; the issue of oil; and international diplomacy resulting from global solidarity activism. The author was an intelligence officer at a time when Australian policy was opposed to East Timorese self-determination, and who saw first hand how the activists forced the Australian government to reverse its policy it had defended over two decades. From this exceptional location, Fernandes is well placed to analyze, interpret and assess the highly original East Timorese ideology, concept and dynamics of strategic non-violent action. The scope and breadth of this monograph makes it essential reading for all who are interested in international politics, Southeast Asian independence struggles, and contemporary diplomacy.” From the Preface by Series Editor Mina Roces “The struggle of East Timor for independence, resisting aggression and slaughter backed by the great powers, is an inspiration for those who value freedom and justice. Fernandes provides an expert and perceptive inquiry into this true modern epic, exploring in unparalleled depth the internal dynamics and international dimensions of the struggle. This most welcome contribution is a worthy tribute to those who endured and overcame, yielding lessons of great significance for understanding of the realities of international society and the resources of the human spirit.” Noam Chomsky “No better account exists of East Timor’s long struggle to emerge from Indonesia's occupation, one that long seemed hopeless to the outside world. Fernandes has an admirable grasp of Timorese, Indonesian, Portuguese and other accounts – as much at home in Jakarta’s military politics as in the activist networks supporting the Timorese resistance. Riveting detail is crammed into this vivid account of a fight on many fronts.” Hamish McDonald, Asia-Pacific Editor, Sydney Morning Herald “The Independence of East Timor provides the most exhaustive and detailed account to date of the many, varied and creative ways in which the country’s internal resistance combined with an international solidarity movement to expose the brutalities of Indonesia’s occupation, achieve Indonesia’s withdrawal, and create the conditions for East Timor’s independence.” John G. Taylor, Professor of Politics, London South Bank University, and author of East Timor: The Price of Freedom “As would be expected from Prof. Clinton Fernandes with his analytical grasp of military, geopolitical, cultural and resistance dynamics, this book provides a much-needed and multi-dimensional approach to the many facets of the struggle of the people of Timor-Leste (East Timor) for independence. While the book in theory does not focus on the sufferings of the Timorese under the Indonesian occupation, it shines a light on that period while examining such phenomena as the ambiguities of the response of Western governments and people within the Cold War, the nature of the Indonesian army, the forums where the conflict was carried out – locally, regionally, internationally and not least ideologically.” Steve Kibble, Progressio Advocacy Africa “The book provides a documented and detailed account of particular events and periods during the Indonesian occupation, in each case assessing the ways in which internal opposition and international actions combined to influence decision-making in Indonesia, the USA, Europe and Australia. Within East Timor, the author focuses on events such as the military-induced famine of 1978–1979, the subsequent forced resettlement of the population, specific incidences of massacres organised by the military in the country’s villages, and the 1991 Santa Cruz massacre. In each case, he shows how, under extremely difficult conditions, information was transmitted from the territory to international networks which used this information skilfully in strategic lobbying. Fernandes documents the activities of these networks in various countries, such as the USA, UK, Portugal, Ireland, Australia, Norway, Sweden and France, assessing the outcomes of their lobbying of national governments and international organisations such as the UN and its various agencies. As an intelligence officer at a time when Australian policy was opposed to East Timorese self-determination, Fernandes witnessed at first hand the increasing influence of Australian campaigners on government policy, and their ultimate success in reversing the Government’s support for the Indonesian occupation. … In writing The Independence of East Timor, Clinton Fernandes has opened up an issue of crucial importance in our understanding of the processes by which East Timor attained its independence. Hopefully, further research will enrich our understanding of the importance of the relations between internal opposition and external support in achieving that independence.” John G. Taylor © 2012, Asian Affairs “The chapter on events leading up to the referendum, or consultation, as it was officially called, is of special importance. It shows that, despite growing international pressures, and the new stand of President Habibie, TNI generals, mainly those from Kopassus who had led the invasion in October 1974 and had then virtually controlled the administration of the annexed province, sought desperately to head off the loss of the 27th province, especially when it became clear that UN involvement would make this difficult. Hence the setting up of the militia had nothing to do with pro-integration Timorese. It was formally launched at ABRI headquarters in August 1998 by Kopassus generals Zakky Anwar Makarim and Sjafrie Sjamsuddin who gave the few assembled Timorese pro-integration leaders the operational agenda – in effect the formation of military units to sabotage the independence movement by intimidation and the use of violence. These were key generals, not rogue commanders as Alexander Downer described them in 1999, when mass killings began to take place. And so, Indonesia’s last year of occupation ended as it began in Balibo – in a wave of violence and terror, and massive destruction. According to a UNTAET (UN Transitional Administration in East Timor) report in 2000, 73% of all houses and buildings were destroyed or seriously damaged, and one third of the population forcibly displaced. … As Fernandes shows, the Howard Government’s position remained ambiguous. While the Prime Minister’s letter to President Habibie suggested a referendum, he also recorded his own preference for East Timor to remain with Indonesia. His foreign minister’s statements suggested that what was clearly a carefully planned ABRI operation was in fact the work of ‘rogue elements’. There was an element of continuity in Australian foreign policy. Under Whitlam, the government had been careful not to draw attention to Indonesian military preparations for the invasion of East Timor, even though these were well known to it from intelligence sources, and in 1999 the Howard Government declined to endorse well-founded reports that the TNI had itself set up the militia units and controlled them. When in 1999 US officials, among them Stanley Roth, became concerned at reports that the TNI was directing the operations of the militia, Australian officials were instructed that such intelligence material should not be passed on to the Americans. When Major Merv Jenkins, a concerned Australian officer stationed in Washington, passed on such material to his US counterparts he was threatened by Australian officials with prosecution. Following this incident Jenkins committed suicide. … I encountered this protective attitude when I became UN specialist on crimes against humanity in East Timor. A senior Australian official let me know that I would get no assistance from them in my search for evidence on the role of Indonesian military commanders behind the violence and destruction carried out in 1999. It was my conclusion that Australian mission officials also encouraged Timorese leaders not to press for an international tribunal to try those military leaders responsible for major war crimes. Much has been written about how Australian attitudes to Timor had changed, but in reality it was more about opportunism than substance. Thanks to these attitudes a number of senior TNI officers have escaped the exposure they richly deserved, including officers who gave drugs to reluctant militia ‘to make them brave’, and massacres of dozens of civilians followed.” Dissent. James Dunn is a former diplomat and Director of the Foreign Affairs group in the Australian Parliament’s Legislative Research Service. His fact-finding mission to East Timor in 1974 resulted in a report recommending self-determination for the now independent nation of Timor Leste. He also worked with the UN as an advisor, producing a report in 2001 on crimes against humanity in East Timor.

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